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Symapthomimetics Based on Selectivity and Generation.pdf by Baasir Umair Khattak, has 1 slides with 265 views.Classification of Selective Alpha Agonists Based on Generation Selective alpha agonists can be classified into first-generation, second-generation, and third-generation based on their pharmacological properties, receptor specificity, and clinical applications. 1. First-Generation Selective Alpha Agonists (Non-subtype selective, older agents, higher side effects) These drugs act on α1 or α2 receptors but with lower specificity and more systemic side effects. Selective α1 Agonists (Vasoconstrictors, Hypotension Treatment) Methoxamine – Used to treat hypotension. Phenylephrine – Used as a nasal decongestant and to increase blood pressure. Midodrine – Used for orthostatic hypotension. Metaraminol – Used in hypotensive states and shock. Selective α2 Agonists (Centrally Acting, Anti-Hypertensive Drugs) Clonidine – Used for hypertension, ADHD, and withdrawal syndromes. Methyldopa – Used for hypertension, especially in pregnancy. Guanfacine – Used in hypertension and ADHD. 2. Second-Generation Selective Alpha Agonists (More receptor selectivity, improved safety profile, fewer side effects) Selective α1 Agonists (Longer Duration, Specific Targeting) Amidephrine – Used in hypotension. Selective α2 Agonists (Better CNS Penetration, Neurological Uses) Brimonidine – Used in glaucoma (reduces intraocular pressure). Apraclonidine – Used in short-term treatment of glaucoma. Tizanidine – Used as a muscle relaxant in spasticity. Lofexidine – Used in opioid withdrawal treatment. 3. Third-Generation Selective Alpha Agonists (Highly selective, fewer side effects, newer therapeutic applications) Selective α2 Agonists (High Selectivity, Novel Applications) Dexmedetomidine – Used as a sedative in ICU and anesthesia. Medetomidine – Used in veterinary anesthesia. Fadolmidine – Investigated for pain relief with fewer cardiovascular effects. Detomidine – Used in veterinary medicine for sedation Classification of Selective Beta Agonists Based on Generation Selective β-adrenergic agonists can be classified into three generations based on their receptor selectivity, duration of action, and therapeutic advancements. 1. First-Generation Selective Beta Agonists (Non-specific, Short-acting, Higher Side Effects) Early β-agonists with partial selectivity, often affecting both β1 and β2 receptors. Shorter duration of action, leading to frequent dosing requirements. Key Drugs: Isoproterenol – A non-selective β1 and β2 agonist, used for bradycardia and heart block. Dobutamine – A selective β1 agonist, used in acute heart failure and cardiogenic shock. Ritodrine – A selective β2 agonist, previously used for delaying preterm labor. 2. Second-Generation Selective Beta Agonists (More Selective, Longer Duration, Improved Safety) These drugs show improved selectivity for either β1 or β2 receptors, reducing unwanted cardiac effects. Longer-acting compared to first-generation. Selective β1 Agonists (Primarily Cardiac Stimulants) Denopamine – Used in heart failure treatment. Prenalte
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echinocandins case presentation.dr ANKUSH GOYAL GMC PATIALA by Dr Ankush goyal, has 10 slides with 151 views.Echinocandins: A Comprehensive Overview Introduction Echinocandins are a class of antifungal agents that have gained significant prominence in the treatment of invasive fungal infections, particularly those caused by Candida and Aspergillus species. They are considered second-line or first-line treatment options in cases of azole-resistant fungal infections. This document provides an in-depth discussion of echinocandins, including their chemical structure, mechanism of action, pharmacokinetics, spectrum of activity, clinical applications, resistance mechanisms, adverse effects, and future perspectives. Historical Background Echinocandins were first discovered in the late 20th century when researchers were exploring natural antifungal compounds derived from fungi and other microorganisms. The first echinocandin, pneumocandin B0, was isolated from Glarea lozoyensis. Further modifications led to the development of caspofungin, micafungin, and anidulafungin, which are the three currently approved echinocandins for clinical use. Chemical Structure Echinocandins are cyclic lipopeptides composed of a large cyclic hexapeptide core linked to a long-chain fatty acid side group. This unique structure is crucial for their antifungal activity and their pharmacokinetic properties. The lipid tail enhances the compound's binding affinity to fungal cells, while the cyclic peptide core is responsible for inhibiting fungal cell wall synthesis. Mechanism of Action Echinocandins exert their antifungal effects by selectively inhibiting the enzyme (1→3)-β-D-glucan synthase, which is essential for the synthesis of β-glucan, a major component of the fungal cell wall. The inhibition of β-glucan synthesis results in cell wall weakening, osmotic instability, and ultimately fungal cell lysis. This mechanism makes echinocandins highly selective for fungi, as mammalian cells lack β-glucan. Pharmacokinetics Echinocandins are administered intravenously due to their poor oral bioavailability. The pharmacokinetic properties of caspofungin, micafungin, and anidulafungin vary slightly, but they share several common features: Distribution: Echinocandins exhibit extensive tissue penetration, particularly in the liver, spleen, lungs, and kidneys. However, their penetration into the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is limited, making them less effective for central nervous system fungal infections. Metabolism: Caspofungin undergoes hepatic metabolism through hydrolysis and N-acetylation, while micafungin is metabolized by the liver via arylsulfatase and catechol-O-methyltransferase. Anidulafungin undergoes spontaneous degradation in the plasma without significant hepatic metabolism. Elimination: The elimination of echinocandins varies; caspofungin is excreted through both hepatic and renal routes, micafungin is eliminated hepatically, and anidulafungin is primarily excreted via fecal routes due to spontaneous degradation. Half-life: Caspofungin has a half-life of approximately 9-
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antiherpes acyclovir mcq ANKUSH GOYAL GMC PATIALA.docx by Dr Ankush goyal, has 12 slides with 31 views.### **Acyclovir and Anti-Herpes Medications** **Acyclovir** is an antiviral medication used to treat infections caused by herpes viruses, including: - **Herpes simplex virus (HSV-1 & HSV-2)** – Causes cold sores and genital herpes. - **Varicella-zoster virus (VZV)** – Causes chickenpox and shingles. ### **Mechanism of Action:** Acyclovir works by inhibiting viral DNA replication. It is activated inside virus-infected cells, where it blocks viral enzymes, preventing the virus from multiplying. ### **Forms & Dosage:** - **Oral (Tablets/Capsules/Liquid)** – Used for mild to moderate infections. - **Topical (Cream/Ointment)** – For cold sores and mild skin infections. - **Intravenous (IV)** – For severe infections like herpes encephalitis. ### **Other Anti-Herpes Medications:** - **Valacyclovir (Valtrex)** – A prodrug of acyclovir with better absorption. - **Famciclovir (Famvir)** – Another antiviral with a longer duration of action. - **Penciclovir (Denavir)** – Used topically for herpes labialis (cold sores). ### **Uses:** - Treats and manages outbreaks of herpes simplex. - Reduces the severity and duration of symptoms. - Used for long-term suppression to prevent recurrent infections. - Helps in managing shingles and chickenpox. ### **Side Effects:** - Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea. - Headache, dizziness, fatigue. - Rare: Kidney issues, allergic reactions. ### **Precautions:** - Drink plenty of fluids to prevent kidney issues. - Not a cure, but helps manage symptoms. - Safe for most patients but should be used cautiously in people with kidney disease or weakened immune systems.
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Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) Ensuring Quality and Compliance.pptx by Dr. Smita Kumbhar, has 53 slides with 184 views.Good Laboratory Practices (GLP): Ensuring Quality and Compliance Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) is a set of principles intended to ensure the quality, integrity, and reliability of non-clinical laboratory studies that support research and regulatory submissions. These guidelines are critical in the pharmaceutical, biotechnological, chemical, and environmental sectors, ensuring that laboratory-generated data are reproducible, credible, and internationally accepted. GLP standards primarily apply to safety studies involving pharmaceuticals, pesticides, food additives, and industrial chemicals. Regulatory agencies, including the USFDA, EMA, and OECD, enforce GLP compliance to maintain scientific rigor and public safety. USFDA GLP Regulations The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) established Good Laboratory Practice regulations under 21 CFR Part 58. These regulations outline responsibilities for study directors, testing facilities, and personnel to maintain quality and integrity in non-clinical laboratory studies. The regulations cover various aspects, including study conduct, reporting, and archiving, ensuring consistency and accuracy in laboratory research. Controlling the GLP Inspection Process Regulatory authorities conduct inspections to verify GLP compliance. Laboratories must prepare for inspections by: • Maintaining up-to-date documentation. • Conducting internal audits. • Ensuring personnel training and awareness. • Implementing corrective actions for non-compliance. Regulatory inspections typically assess laboratory infrastructure, personnel competence, study documentation, and adherence to protocols. Laboratories must demonstrate transparency and proactive quality control measures. Documentation in GLP Accurate and comprehensive documentation is crucial in GLP compliance. Key documentation elements include: • Study protocols • Standard operating procedures (SOPs) • Raw data records • Analytical reports • Audit reports • Equipment calibration records • Archiving and retention policies Proper documentation ensures traceability, accountability, and reliability in laboratory research. Audit in GLP Compliance Auditing is a critical component of GLP, ensuring adherence to established regulations and identifying areas for improvement. Audits can be internal (self-audit) or external (regulatory or third-party audits). Goals of Laboratory Quality Audit • Ensure compliance with GLP regulations. • Identify gaps and areas for improvement. • Validate data integrity and accuracy. • Enhance operational efficiency. • Prevent regulatory penalties and study disqualification. Audit Tools in GLP Laboratories use various audit tools to assess compliance, including: • Checklists and self-assessments • Internal quality audits • Electronic data tracking systems • Third-party inspections • Root cause analysis • Corrective and preventive action (CAPA) plans Future of GLP Regulations
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Integumentary System By Baasir Umair.pdf by Baasir Umair Khattak, has 78 slides with 31 views.The integumentary system is the largest organ system of the human body, serving as the body's first line of defense against environmental hazards. It includes the skin, hair, nails, glands, and sensory receptors. This system plays a vital role in protection, thermoregulation, sensation, excretion, and vitamin D synthesis. Understanding its structure and function is crucial for comprehending how the body interacts with its surroundings. Structure of the Integumentary System The integumentary system comprises two main components: The Skin (Cutaneous Membrane) Accessory Structures (Hair, Nails, and Glands) The Skin The skin, also called the cutaneous membrane, consists of three primary layers: 1. Epidermis The epidermis is the outermost layer of the skin, composed of stratified squamous epithelium. It lacks blood vessels and is primarily made of keratinocytes, which produce the protective protein keratin. Other important cells in the epidermis include: Melanocytes – produce melanin, which protects against UV radiation. Langerhans cells – involved in immune response. Merkel cells – associated with sensory neurons for touch perception. The epidermis has five distinct layers (from deep to superficial): Stratum basale (germinativum) – contains basal cells responsible for generating new keratinocytes. Stratum spinosum – provides structural integrity. Stratum granulosum – where keratinization begins. Stratum lucidum – found only in thick skin (palms and soles). Stratum corneum – the outermost layer made of dead keratinized cells. 2. Dermis The dermis is the thicker, connective tissue layer beneath the epidermis. It consists of collagen and elastic fibers, providing strength and flexibility. The dermis has two layers: Papillary Layer – composed of loose areolar connective tissue; contains dermal papillae, capillaries, and sensory receptors. Reticular Layer – made of dense irregular connective tissue; contains sweat glands, hair follicles, and blood vessels. 3. Hypodermis (Subcutaneous Layer) The hypodermis is a layer of adipose and connective tissue that insulates the body, stores energy, and provides cushioning. It connects the skin to underlying muscles and bones. Functions of the Integumentary System The skin performs several essential functions, including: 1. Protection The skin acts as a physical barrier against microorganisms, dehydration, UV radiation, and harmful chemicals. The acid mantle (low pH) of the skin inhibits bacterial growth. 2. Thermoregulation The skin helps maintain body temperature through: Sweating (eccrine and apocrine glands) – evaporative cooling. Vasodilation – blood vessels widen to release heat. Vasoconstriction – blood vessels narrow to retain heat. Goosebumps (arrector pili muscles) – create an insulating layer. 3. Sensation The skin contains specialized sensory receptors: Meissner’s corpuscles – detect light touch. Pacinian corpuscles – sense deep pressure and vibration. Merkel cells –
Integumentary System By Baasir Umair.pdfIntegumentary System By Baasir Umair.pdf
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PARKINSON’S USMLE style question by dr ankush goyal by Dr Ankush goyal, has 43 slides with 234 views.Parkinsonism refers to a clinical syndrome characterized by a combination of motor and non-motor symptoms that resemble Parkinson’s disease (PD). It results from dysfunction in the basal ganglia, particularly due to dopamine deficiency in the substantia nigra. Key Features of Parkinsonism: 1. Bradykinesia – Slowness of movement with difficulty in initiating and executing voluntary movements. 2. Rigidity – Increased muscle tone, presenting as either: Lead-pipe rigidity (uniform resistance) Cogwheel rigidity (intermittent resistance with a ratchet-like quality) 3. Tremor – Resting tremor, typically "pill-rolling" (4-6 Hz), that improves with movement. 4. Postural Instability – Impaired balance leading to a higher risk of falls. Causes of Parkinsonism: 1. Idiopathic Parkinson’s Disease (PD) – The most common cause, due to progressive degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. 2. Drug-Induced Parkinsonism – Caused by dopamine-blocking agents (e.g., antipsychotics, metoclopramide, reserpine). 3. Atypical Parkinsonian Syndromes (Parkinson-plus syndromes) – Progressive conditions with additional features beyond classic Parkinsonism, such as: Multiple System Atrophy (MSA) Progressive Supranuclear Palsy (PSP) Corticobasal Degeneration (CBD) Dementia with Lewy Bodies (DLB) 4. Vascular Parkinsonism – Due to multiple small strokes affecting the basal ganglia. 5. Toxic or Metabolic Causes – Includes manganese poisoning, carbon monoxide exposure, Wilson’s disease. 6. Post-Encephalitic Parkinsonism – Rare, seen in survivors of encephalitis lethargica. Diagnosis: Clinical Evaluation – Based on cardinal motor symptoms. Response to Levodopa – Helps differentiate PD from other causes. Neuroimaging (MRI, DaTscan) – Useful in atypical cases. Management: Pharmacological Treatment: Levodopa (with carbidopa) Dopamine agonists (pramipexole, ropinirole) MAO-B inhibitors (selegiline, rasagiline) COMT inhibitors (entacapone) Anticholinergics (for tremors) Non-Pharmacological Treatment: Physiotherapy, speech therapy Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) in selected cases
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Genetic Control of Cellular Functions.pdf by MedicoseAcademics, has 59 slides with 613 views.These slides describe the role of genetic control in the regulation of cellular functions. Learning Objectives: 1. Describe the structure of DNA 2. Recognise the different types of RNA 3. Briefly describe the steps of transcription to elucidate the functions of different types of RNA 4. Briefly describe the process of translation 5. Discuss the mechanisms of genetic control of cell functions 6. Describe the cell cycle 7. Briefly describe the process of DNA replication 8. Describe the control of cell reproduction by telomeres and telomerase 9. Compare and contrast apoptosis and necrosis 10. Explain the pathophysiology of cancer and ageing
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Classification of Sympathomimetic+Baasir Umair.docx by Baasir Umair Khattak, has 3 slides with 238 views.Sympathomimetic Drugs (Adrenergic Agonists) – Overview and Classification Sympathomimetic drugs, also known as adrenergic agonists, are a class of medications that mimic the effects of endogenous catecholamines (adrenaline, noradrenaline, and dopamine) by stimulating adrenergic receptors. These drugs are widely used in clinical practice for conditions like asthma, cardiac arrest, hypotension, nasal congestion, and attention deficit disorders. 1. Classification Based on Chemical Structure Catecholamines (contain a catechol nucleus and amine group): Natural Catecholamines: Adrenaline, Noradrenaline, Dopamine Synthetic Catecholamines: Isoproterenol, Dobutamine Non-Catecholamines (lack a catechol nucleus, generally have longer duration of action): Short-acting beta agonists (SABAs): Albuterol, Terbutaline, Metaproterenol, Pirbuterol, Levalbuterol Long-acting beta agonists (LABAs): Salmeterol, Formoterol, Arformoterol, Bambuterol, Clenbuterol Ultra-long-acting beta agonists (ULABAs): Indacaterol, Olodaterol, Vilanterol Others: Ephedrine, Pseudoephedrine, Amphetamines, Oxymetazoline, Xylometazoline 2. Classification Based on Receptor Selectivity Non-selective Adrenergic Agonists: Adrenaline (stimulates α1, α2, β1, β2 receptors) Noradrenaline (stimulates α1, α2, β1 receptors with weak β3 action) Isoproterenol (stimulates β1, β2 receptors) Selective Adrenergic Agonists: α1 Agonists: Phenylephrine, Midodrine, Methoxamine (used in hypotension) α2 Agonists: Clonidine, Methyldopa, Brimonidine (used in hypertension, glaucoma) β1 Agonists: Dobutamine, Denopamine (used in heart failure) β2 Agonists: SABAs, LABAs (used in asthma, COPD) β3 Agonists: Mirabegron, Vibegron (used in overactive bladder) Dopaminergic Agonists (D1 receptor): Fenoldopam (used in hypertension) 3. Classification Based on Pharmacological Action Pressor Agents (Increase Blood Pressure): Noradrenaline, Dopamine, Phenylephrine, Ephedrine Cardiac Stimulants: Dobutamine, Xamoterol (used in heart failure) Bronchodilators: SABAs, LABAs (used in asthma, COPD) Nasal Decongestants: Oxymetazoline, Xylometazoline, Phenylephrine CNS Stimulants: Amphetamines, Methylphenidate (used in ADHD, narcolepsy) Anorectics (Appetite Suppressants): Fenfluramine, Sibutramine Uterine Relaxants (Tocolytics): Ritodrine, Isoxsuprine (used in preterm labor) 4. Classification Based on Mechanism of Action Direct-acting Adrenergic Agonists: Bind directly to adrenergic receptors (e.g., adrenaline, phenylephrine) Indirect-acting Adrenergic Agonists: Increase endogenous catecholamines (e.g., amphetamines, cocaine) Mixed-acting Adrenergic Agonists: Both direct and indirect actions (e.g., ephedrine, pseudoephedrine)
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CHAPTER-3-FORENSIC-NURSING - 5th Semester by Anand Gowda, has 24 slides with 15 views.Forensic Nursing
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Symapthomimetics Based on Selectivity and Generation.pdf by Baasir Umair Khattak, has 1 slides with 265 views.Classification of Selective Alpha Agonists Based on Generation Selective alpha agonists can be classified into first-generation, second-generation, and third-generation based on their pharmacological properties, receptor specificity, and clinical applications. 1. First-Generation Selective Alpha Agonists (Non-subtype selective, older agents, higher side effects) These drugs act on α1 or α2 receptors but with lower specificity and more systemic side effects. Selective α1 Agonists (Vasoconstrictors, Hypotension Treatment) Methoxamine – Used to treat hypotension. Phenylephrine – Used as a nasal decongestant and to increase blood pressure. Midodrine – Used for orthostatic hypotension. Metaraminol – Used in hypotensive states and shock. Selective α2 Agonists (Centrally Acting, Anti-Hypertensive Drugs) Clonidine – Used for hypertension, ADHD, and withdrawal syndromes. Methyldopa – Used for hypertension, especially in pregnancy. Guanfacine – Used in hypertension and ADHD. 2. Second-Generation Selective Alpha Agonists (More receptor selectivity, improved safety profile, fewer side effects) Selective α1 Agonists (Longer Duration, Specific Targeting) Amidephrine – Used in hypotension. Selective α2 Agonists (Better CNS Penetration, Neurological Uses) Brimonidine – Used in glaucoma (reduces intraocular pressure). Apraclonidine – Used in short-term treatment of glaucoma. Tizanidine – Used as a muscle relaxant in spasticity. Lofexidine – Used in opioid withdrawal treatment. 3. Third-Generation Selective Alpha Agonists (Highly selective, fewer side effects, newer therapeutic applications) Selective α2 Agonists (High Selectivity, Novel Applications) Dexmedetomidine – Used as a sedative in ICU and anesthesia. Medetomidine – Used in veterinary anesthesia. Fadolmidine – Investigated for pain relief with fewer cardiovascular effects. Detomidine – Used in veterinary medicine for sedation Classification of Selective Beta Agonists Based on Generation Selective β-adrenergic agonists can be classified into three generations based on their receptor selectivity, duration of action, and therapeutic advancements. 1. First-Generation Selective Beta Agonists (Non-specific, Short-acting, Higher Side Effects) Early β-agonists with partial selectivity, often affecting both β1 and β2 receptors. Shorter duration of action, leading to frequent dosing requirements. Key Drugs: Isoproterenol – A non-selective β1 and β2 agonist, used for bradycardia and heart block. Dobutamine – A selective β1 agonist, used in acute heart failure and cardiogenic shock. Ritodrine – A selective β2 agonist, previously used for delaying preterm labor. 2. Second-Generation Selective Beta Agonists (More Selective, Longer Duration, Improved Safety) These drugs show improved selectivity for either β1 or β2 receptors, reducing unwanted cardiac effects. Longer-acting compared to first-generation. Selective β1 Agonists (Primarily Cardiac Stimulants) Denopamine – Used in heart failure treatment. Prenalte
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Baasir Umair Khattak
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echinocandins case presentation.dr ANKUSH GOYAL GMC PATIALA by Dr Ankush goyal, has 10 slides with 151 views.Echinocandins: A Comprehensive Overview Introduction Echinocandins are a class of antifungal agents that have gained significant prominence in the treatment of invasive fungal infections, particularly those caused by Candida and Aspergillus species. They are considered second-line or first-line treatment options in cases of azole-resistant fungal infections. This document provides an in-depth discussion of echinocandins, including their chemical structure, mechanism of action, pharmacokinetics, spectrum of activity, clinical applications, resistance mechanisms, adverse effects, and future perspectives. Historical Background Echinocandins were first discovered in the late 20th century when researchers were exploring natural antifungal compounds derived from fungi and other microorganisms. The first echinocandin, pneumocandin B0, was isolated from Glarea lozoyensis. Further modifications led to the development of caspofungin, micafungin, and anidulafungin, which are the three currently approved echinocandins for clinical use. Chemical Structure Echinocandins are cyclic lipopeptides composed of a large cyclic hexapeptide core linked to a long-chain fatty acid side group. This unique structure is crucial for their antifungal activity and their pharmacokinetic properties. The lipid tail enhances the compound's binding affinity to fungal cells, while the cyclic peptide core is responsible for inhibiting fungal cell wall synthesis. Mechanism of Action Echinocandins exert their antifungal effects by selectively inhibiting the enzyme (1→3)-β-D-glucan synthase, which is essential for the synthesis of β-glucan, a major component of the fungal cell wall. The inhibition of β-glucan synthesis results in cell wall weakening, osmotic instability, and ultimately fungal cell lysis. This mechanism makes echinocandins highly selective for fungi, as mammalian cells lack β-glucan. Pharmacokinetics Echinocandins are administered intravenously due to their poor oral bioavailability. The pharmacokinetic properties of caspofungin, micafungin, and anidulafungin vary slightly, but they share several common features: Distribution: Echinocandins exhibit extensive tissue penetration, particularly in the liver, spleen, lungs, and kidneys. However, their penetration into the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is limited, making them less effective for central nervous system fungal infections. Metabolism: Caspofungin undergoes hepatic metabolism through hydrolysis and N-acetylation, while micafungin is metabolized by the liver via arylsulfatase and catechol-O-methyltransferase. Anidulafungin undergoes spontaneous degradation in the plasma without significant hepatic metabolism. Elimination: The elimination of echinocandins varies; caspofungin is excreted through both hepatic and renal routes, micafungin is eliminated hepatically, and anidulafungin is primarily excreted via fecal routes due to spontaneous degradation. Half-life: Caspofungin has a half-life of approximately 9-
echinocandins case presentation.dr ANKUSH GOYAL GMC PATIALAechinocandins case presentation.dr ANKUSH GOYAL GMC PATIALA
echinocandins case presentation.dr ANKUSH GOYAL GMC PATIALA
Dr Ankush goyal
10 slides151 views
antiherpes acyclovir mcq ANKUSH GOYAL GMC PATIALA.docx by Dr Ankush goyal, has 12 slides with 31 views.### **Acyclovir and Anti-Herpes Medications** **Acyclovir** is an antiviral medication used to treat infections caused by herpes viruses, including: - **Herpes simplex virus (HSV-1 & HSV-2)** – Causes cold sores and genital herpes. - **Varicella-zoster virus (VZV)** – Causes chickenpox and shingles. ### **Mechanism of Action:** Acyclovir works by inhibiting viral DNA replication. It is activated inside virus-infected cells, where it blocks viral enzymes, preventing the virus from multiplying. ### **Forms & Dosage:** - **Oral (Tablets/Capsules/Liquid)** – Used for mild to moderate infections. - **Topical (Cream/Ointment)** – For cold sores and mild skin infections. - **Intravenous (IV)** – For severe infections like herpes encephalitis. ### **Other Anti-Herpes Medications:** - **Valacyclovir (Valtrex)** – A prodrug of acyclovir with better absorption. - **Famciclovir (Famvir)** – Another antiviral with a longer duration of action. - **Penciclovir (Denavir)** – Used topically for herpes labialis (cold sores). ### **Uses:** - Treats and manages outbreaks of herpes simplex. - Reduces the severity and duration of symptoms. - Used for long-term suppression to prevent recurrent infections. - Helps in managing shingles and chickenpox. ### **Side Effects:** - Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea. - Headache, dizziness, fatigue. - Rare: Kidney issues, allergic reactions. ### **Precautions:** - Drink plenty of fluids to prevent kidney issues. - Not a cure, but helps manage symptoms. - Safe for most patients but should be used cautiously in people with kidney disease or weakened immune systems.
antiherpes acyclovir mcq ANKUSH GOYAL GMC PATIALA.docxantiherpes acyclovir mcq ANKUSH GOYAL GMC PATIALA.docx
antiherpes acyclovir mcq ANKUSH GOYAL GMC PATIALA.docx
Dr Ankush goyal
12 slides31 views
Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) Ensuring Quality and Compliance.pptx by Dr. Smita Kumbhar, has 53 slides with 184 views.Good Laboratory Practices (GLP): Ensuring Quality and Compliance Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) is a set of principles intended to ensure the quality, integrity, and reliability of non-clinical laboratory studies that support research and regulatory submissions. These guidelines are critical in the pharmaceutical, biotechnological, chemical, and environmental sectors, ensuring that laboratory-generated data are reproducible, credible, and internationally accepted. GLP standards primarily apply to safety studies involving pharmaceuticals, pesticides, food additives, and industrial chemicals. Regulatory agencies, including the USFDA, EMA, and OECD, enforce GLP compliance to maintain scientific rigor and public safety. USFDA GLP Regulations The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) established Good Laboratory Practice regulations under 21 CFR Part 58. These regulations outline responsibilities for study directors, testing facilities, and personnel to maintain quality and integrity in non-clinical laboratory studies. The regulations cover various aspects, including study conduct, reporting, and archiving, ensuring consistency and accuracy in laboratory research. Controlling the GLP Inspection Process Regulatory authorities conduct inspections to verify GLP compliance. Laboratories must prepare for inspections by: • Maintaining up-to-date documentation. • Conducting internal audits. • Ensuring personnel training and awareness. • Implementing corrective actions for non-compliance. Regulatory inspections typically assess laboratory infrastructure, personnel competence, study documentation, and adherence to protocols. Laboratories must demonstrate transparency and proactive quality control measures. Documentation in GLP Accurate and comprehensive documentation is crucial in GLP compliance. Key documentation elements include: • Study protocols • Standard operating procedures (SOPs) • Raw data records • Analytical reports • Audit reports • Equipment calibration records • Archiving and retention policies Proper documentation ensures traceability, accountability, and reliability in laboratory research. Audit in GLP Compliance Auditing is a critical component of GLP, ensuring adherence to established regulations and identifying areas for improvement. Audits can be internal (self-audit) or external (regulatory or third-party audits). Goals of Laboratory Quality Audit • Ensure compliance with GLP regulations. • Identify gaps and areas for improvement. • Validate data integrity and accuracy. • Enhance operational efficiency. • Prevent regulatory penalties and study disqualification. Audit Tools in GLP Laboratories use various audit tools to assess compliance, including: • Checklists and self-assessments • Internal quality audits • Electronic data tracking systems • Third-party inspections • Root cause analysis • Corrective and preventive action (CAPA) plans Future of GLP Regulations
Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) Ensuring Quality and Compliance.pptxGood Laboratory Practices (GLP) Ensuring Quality and Compliance.pptx
Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) Ensuring Quality and Compliance.pptx
Dr. Smita Kumbhar
53 slides184 views
Integumentary System By Baasir Umair.pdf by Baasir Umair Khattak, has 78 slides with 31 views.The integumentary system is the largest organ system of the human body, serving as the body's first line of defense against environmental hazards. It includes the skin, hair, nails, glands, and sensory receptors. This system plays a vital role in protection, thermoregulation, sensation, excretion, and vitamin D synthesis. Understanding its structure and function is crucial for comprehending how the body interacts with its surroundings. Structure of the Integumentary System The integumentary system comprises two main components: The Skin (Cutaneous Membrane) Accessory Structures (Hair, Nails, and Glands) The Skin The skin, also called the cutaneous membrane, consists of three primary layers: 1. Epidermis The epidermis is the outermost layer of the skin, composed of stratified squamous epithelium. It lacks blood vessels and is primarily made of keratinocytes, which produce the protective protein keratin. Other important cells in the epidermis include: Melanocytes – produce melanin, which protects against UV radiation. Langerhans cells – involved in immune response. Merkel cells – associated with sensory neurons for touch perception. The epidermis has five distinct layers (from deep to superficial): Stratum basale (germinativum) – contains basal cells responsible for generating new keratinocytes. Stratum spinosum – provides structural integrity. Stratum granulosum – where keratinization begins. Stratum lucidum – found only in thick skin (palms and soles). Stratum corneum – the outermost layer made of dead keratinized cells. 2. Dermis The dermis is the thicker, connective tissue layer beneath the epidermis. It consists of collagen and elastic fibers, providing strength and flexibility. The dermis has two layers: Papillary Layer – composed of loose areolar connective tissue; contains dermal papillae, capillaries, and sensory receptors. Reticular Layer – made of dense irregular connective tissue; contains sweat glands, hair follicles, and blood vessels. 3. Hypodermis (Subcutaneous Layer) The hypodermis is a layer of adipose and connective tissue that insulates the body, stores energy, and provides cushioning. It connects the skin to underlying muscles and bones. Functions of the Integumentary System The skin performs several essential functions, including: 1. Protection The skin acts as a physical barrier against microorganisms, dehydration, UV radiation, and harmful chemicals. The acid mantle (low pH) of the skin inhibits bacterial growth. 2. Thermoregulation The skin helps maintain body temperature through: Sweating (eccrine and apocrine glands) – evaporative cooling. Vasodilation – blood vessels widen to release heat. Vasoconstriction – blood vessels narrow to retain heat. Goosebumps (arrector pili muscles) – create an insulating layer. 3. Sensation The skin contains specialized sensory receptors: Meissner’s corpuscles – detect light touch. Pacinian corpuscles – sense deep pressure and vibration. Merkel cells –
Integumentary System By Baasir Umair.pdfIntegumentary System By Baasir Umair.pdf
Integumentary System By Baasir Umair.pdf
Baasir Umair Khattak
78 slides31 views
PARKINSON’S USMLE style question by dr ankush goyal by Dr Ankush goyal, has 43 slides with 234 views.Parkinsonism refers to a clinical syndrome characterized by a combination of motor and non-motor symptoms that resemble Parkinson’s disease (PD). It results from dysfunction in the basal ganglia, particularly due to dopamine deficiency in the substantia nigra. Key Features of Parkinsonism: 1. Bradykinesia – Slowness of movement with difficulty in initiating and executing voluntary movements. 2. Rigidity – Increased muscle tone, presenting as either: Lead-pipe rigidity (uniform resistance) Cogwheel rigidity (intermittent resistance with a ratchet-like quality) 3. Tremor – Resting tremor, typically "pill-rolling" (4-6 Hz), that improves with movement. 4. Postural Instability – Impaired balance leading to a higher risk of falls. Causes of Parkinsonism: 1. Idiopathic Parkinson’s Disease (PD) – The most common cause, due to progressive degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. 2. Drug-Induced Parkinsonism – Caused by dopamine-blocking agents (e.g., antipsychotics, metoclopramide, reserpine). 3. Atypical Parkinsonian Syndromes (Parkinson-plus syndromes) – Progressive conditions with additional features beyond classic Parkinsonism, such as: Multiple System Atrophy (MSA) Progressive Supranuclear Palsy (PSP) Corticobasal Degeneration (CBD) Dementia with Lewy Bodies (DLB) 4. Vascular Parkinsonism – Due to multiple small strokes affecting the basal ganglia. 5. Toxic or Metabolic Causes – Includes manganese poisoning, carbon monoxide exposure, Wilson’s disease. 6. Post-Encephalitic Parkinsonism – Rare, seen in survivors of encephalitis lethargica. Diagnosis: Clinical Evaluation – Based on cardinal motor symptoms. Response to Levodopa – Helps differentiate PD from other causes. Neuroimaging (MRI, DaTscan) – Useful in atypical cases. Management: Pharmacological Treatment: Levodopa (with carbidopa) Dopamine agonists (pramipexole, ropinirole) MAO-B inhibitors (selegiline, rasagiline) COMT inhibitors (entacapone) Anticholinergics (for tremors) Non-Pharmacological Treatment: Physiotherapy, speech therapy Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) in selected cases
PARKINSON’S USMLE style question by dr ankush goyalPARKINSON’S USMLE style question by dr ankush goyal
PARKINSON’S USMLE style question by dr ankush goyal
Dr Ankush goyal
43 slides234 views
Classification of Sympathomimetic+Baasir Umair.docx by Baasir Umair Khattak, has 3 slides with 238 views.Sympathomimetic Drugs (Adrenergic Agonists) – Overview and Classification Sympathomimetic drugs, also known as adrenergic agonists, are a class of medications that mimic the effects of endogenous catecholamines (adrenaline, noradrenaline, and dopamine) by stimulating adrenergic receptors. These drugs are widely used in clinical practice for conditions like asthma, cardiac arrest, hypotension, nasal congestion, and attention deficit disorders. 1. Classification Based on Chemical Structure Catecholamines (contain a catechol nucleus and amine group): Natural Catecholamines: Adrenaline, Noradrenaline, Dopamine Synthetic Catecholamines: Isoproterenol, Dobutamine Non-Catecholamines (lack a catechol nucleus, generally have longer duration of action): Short-acting beta agonists (SABAs): Albuterol, Terbutaline, Metaproterenol, Pirbuterol, Levalbuterol Long-acting beta agonists (LABAs): Salmeterol, Formoterol, Arformoterol, Bambuterol, Clenbuterol Ultra-long-acting beta agonists (ULABAs): Indacaterol, Olodaterol, Vilanterol Others: Ephedrine, Pseudoephedrine, Amphetamines, Oxymetazoline, Xylometazoline 2. Classification Based on Receptor Selectivity Non-selective Adrenergic Agonists: Adrenaline (stimulates α1, α2, β1, β2 receptors) Noradrenaline (stimulates α1, α2, β1 receptors with weak β3 action) Isoproterenol (stimulates β1, β2 receptors) Selective Adrenergic Agonists: α1 Agonists: Phenylephrine, Midodrine, Methoxamine (used in hypotension) α2 Agonists: Clonidine, Methyldopa, Brimonidine (used in hypertension, glaucoma) β1 Agonists: Dobutamine, Denopamine (used in heart failure) β2 Agonists: SABAs, LABAs (used in asthma, COPD) β3 Agonists: Mirabegron, Vibegron (used in overactive bladder) Dopaminergic Agonists (D1 receptor): Fenoldopam (used in hypertension) 3. Classification Based on Pharmacological Action Pressor Agents (Increase Blood Pressure): Noradrenaline, Dopamine, Phenylephrine, Ephedrine Cardiac Stimulants: Dobutamine, Xamoterol (used in heart failure) Bronchodilators: SABAs, LABAs (used in asthma, COPD) Nasal Decongestants: Oxymetazoline, Xylometazoline, Phenylephrine CNS Stimulants: Amphetamines, Methylphenidate (used in ADHD, narcolepsy) Anorectics (Appetite Suppressants): Fenfluramine, Sibutramine Uterine Relaxants (Tocolytics): Ritodrine, Isoxsuprine (used in preterm labor) 4. Classification Based on Mechanism of Action Direct-acting Adrenergic Agonists: Bind directly to adrenergic receptors (e.g., adrenaline, phenylephrine) Indirect-acting Adrenergic Agonists: Increase endogenous catecholamines (e.g., amphetamines, cocaine) Mixed-acting Adrenergic Agonists: Both direct and indirect actions (e.g., ephedrine, pseudoephedrine)
Classification of Sympathomimetic+Baasir Umair.docxClassification of Sympathomimetic+Baasir Umair.docx
Classification of Sympathomimetic+Baasir Umair.docx
Baasir Umair Khattak
3 slides238 views

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